The Surprising Gut-Brain Connection

Somalia's schools have transformed remarkably since 2012 when the Federal Government formed after two decades of civil war. The education system shows signs of progress despite ongoing challenges. The AGES program now supports over 80,000 out-of-school girls, yet only 25 percent of primary school-aged girls attend classes.

Somalia's education system stands at a significant crossroads. The government's 2023-2026 Somalia Partnership Compact shows its steadfast dedication to fair educational access. This analysis delves into these modern learning institutions' operations and their distinct cultural elements. The assessment systems paint a detailed picture of what sets Somalia's education apart.

The Historical Journey of Somalia's Education System

"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world." — Nelson Mandela, Former President of South Africa and anti-apartheid revolutionary

Somalia's educational roots run deep through its cultural, religious, and colonial history. Looking at this historical trip provides vital context that shapes somalia schools today. This Horn of Africa nation's education has evolved through several distinct phases that have left lasting impressions on today's learning practices.

Pre-colonial traditional education

Somalia's education started through simple systems where elders passed down vital knowledge to younger generations. Somalis kept their histories alive through oral traditions before formal schooling began. Each generation memorized genealogical and historical information ^[1]. This education blended social, cultural and religious elements in extended family settings and adapted well to environmental conditions ^[1].

Islam profoundly shaped education in Somalia. Almost all Somalis had converted to Islam by 1300 A.D. Towns like Zeila and Berbera became centers of Islamic learning ^[2]. Quranic schools (duksis in southern regions and mal'amad in northern areas) became the foundations of education. These schools moved with nomadic communities during seasonal migrations ^[1]. People combined these schools with nomadic education to create a system that met their simple survival needs ^[1].

Sufi religious orders spread throughout Somalia and brought popular religious writings in Arabic. New prayers and liturgical practices made Arabic literacy more prestigious ^[3]. Somalia's education system combined indigenous knowledge with Islamic teachings to prepare children for pastoral society.

Colonial influence on schooling

Western-style formal education arrived during the colonial era with different approaches across regions. Three European powers divided the territory after 1888:

• British Somaliland (northern region): Administrative training took priority, with minimal resources (less than 500 pounds for primary education in 1939) ^[3]
• Italian Somaliland (southern region): Education focused on training farmers and unskilled workers for plantations through segregated schooling ^[2]
• French Somaliland (northwest, modern Djibouti): Created its own distinct educational approach ^[2]

Colonial education reached nowhere near enough people. British Somaliland had only sixteen Somalis in formal Western schooling as late as 1942 ^[3]. Italian administration showed similarly low numbers with just 1,265 students (less than one-tenth of 1 percent of the population) in their schools ^[2].

Colonial education served only the elite. British and Italian systems wanted to train small groups of Somalis for colonial administration jobs instead of providing widespread education ^[3]. Many Somalis looked at these schools with doubt and feared they would spread Christianity ^[1].

Education investment grew from 1950-1960 as independence approached. British authorities set aside 340,000 pounds for education in their 1957 three-year plan ^[3]. Italian Trusteeship Administration built over 100 new elementary, secondary, and vocational schools, though higher education stayed limited ^[3].

Post-independence educational reforms

Somalia faced three big challenges after gaining independence in 1960: merging different school systems from British and Italian colonies, finding enough qualified Somali teachers, and making an elite system work for everyone ^[3].

Different colonial systems made integration hard. Northern elementary schools ran three-year programs that started with Arabic before adding English. Southern schools had four-year programs and introduced Italian after the second year ^[3]. Northern schools had less central control and more local management, which led to fewer dropouts (about 15% compared to up to 75% in the South) ^[3].

Teacher shortages remained a constant problem. Ministry of Education data from 1962 showed that 112 of 201 intermediate and secondary school teachers came from other countries ^[3]. A Peace Corps volunteer at Mogadishu's Scuola Magistrale noted that teaching attracted "only the poorest students" as a career choice ^[3].

General Mohamed Siyaad Barre's 1969 military coup brought the most dramatic changes to education. His regime implemented "scientific socialism" with major educational reforms:

1. Created an official Latin script for Somali language in 1972 ^[3]
2. Started national literacy campaigns in urban (1973) and rural (1974) areas ^[3]
3. Took control of all private schools, which had 31% of students in 1969 ^[3]
4. Made education free and mandatory for children aged 6-14 in 1975 ^[3]

These reforms helped primary school numbers grow from about 40,000 in 1970 to nearly 300,000 in 1979 ^[3]. Women teachers in primary schools increased from about 10% in 1969 to about 30% in 1979 ^[3].

Natural disasters, war with Ethiopia, and a refugee crisis shifted the regime's attention away from education in the 1980s. The somalia education system fell into decline, creating problems that would last through years of civil conflict until recent rebuilding efforts began.

Structure of School in Somalia Today

The somalia education system has slowly rebuilt itself after decades of conflict. It now has a clear structure at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Schools across the country work under tough conditions but show amazing strength as they try to educate Somalia's youth.

Primary education framework

Children start school at age 6 in Somalia's primary education system ^[2]. Most areas use an 8-year primary education model split between four years of lower primary and four years of upper primary ^[3]. The curriculum has nine required subjects: Arabic, Islamic studies, Somali, mathematics, science, social studies, English, physical education, and arts and crafts ^[3].

Students at different levels follow different schedules. Lower primary students take 36 lesson periods of 35 minutes each week, while upper primary students attend 42 periods of 40 minutes each ^[3]. Teachers use Somali as the main teaching language and introduce English as a subject from Grade 2 to 8 ^[3].

The system faces big challenges right now. 3 million out of 5 million school-age children don't go to school ^[4]. Primary education enrollment sits at just 31% as of 2022 ^[5], and girls' enrollment is even lower at 17% ^[2]. Many classrooms are packed, with one teacher handling about 35 students in primary schools ^[2].

Secondary education organization

Students aged 15-18 spend four years in secondary education and take the Puntland Secondary School Certificate Examination (PSCE) at the end ^[3]. They study ten subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, Somali, Arabic, Islamic studies, English, physical education, geography, and history ^[3]. Every subject except physical education is mandatory ^[3].

English becomes the main teaching language in secondary school, except for Somali, Arabic, and Islamic studies classes ^[3]. Students attend 40 periods each week, with each period lasting 45 minutes ^[3].

Many students struggle to access secondary education in Somalia. About 79% of girls who should be in secondary school aren't enrolled, compared to 66% of boys ^[2]. Moving from primary to secondary school proves tough - only 8% of Somali children make it to secondary education ^[2].

Higher education institutions

Somalia's higher education has grown a lot lately. The country now has nearly 50 colleges and universities teaching over 50,000 students ^[6][1]. Major schools include Mogadishu University, University of Hargeisa, and University of Somalia ^[6].

Most students choose to study information technology, business administration, and social sciences ^[6][1]. Research shows that 68% of schools offer computer-related courses, 59% teach social science programs, and 56% provide law/Sharia courses ^[1].

Private funding runs most higher education in Somalia, with student fees as the main source of money ^[1]. A study of 22 schools in South-Central Somalia found that 14 rely completely on student fees ^[1]. This money model creates problems, especially when the economy struggles ^[6].

School quality varies between institutions. About 86% of colleges report their teaching and administrative staff need more training ^[6]. Many schools don't have basic things like libraries and labs ^[6]. Research output remains low - only 15 out of 44 schools publish academic work ^[6].

Cultural Elements That Shape Somalia Education

The cultural fabric of somalia schools blends three distinct threads: Islamic teachings, traditional Somali values, and linguistic diversity. These elements create a unique educational experience in East Africa that shapes curriculum design and teaching methods across the country.

Role of Islamic education

Islamic education serves as the life-blood of learning in Somalia. The numbers tell the story - 80-90% of all children attend Quranic schools ^[7]. This rate towers over formal primary education, where only 30% of children enroll. Quranic education thrives even in places where government schools don't deal very well with daily operations, especially in rural and nomadic communities ^[7].

These religious institutions stand out because they welcome both genders equally. Quranic schools maintain almost equal numbers of boys and girls, which differs from many other parts of Somali society ^[7]. Parents choose these schools not just for religious teaching but because they value education itself ^[7].

The biggest change in recent years has been the rise of hybrid or integrated Quranic schools ^[7]. Students now learn Somali language, mathematics, and Arabic along with their religious studies ^[7]. Community leaders support this integration as long as it doesn't affect the schools' religious purpose ^[7].

Integration of traditional values

Traditional Somali values run deep in the educational framework and create a culturally responsive learning environment. Quranic schools differ from western-style institutions because they encourage children to stay connected with family practices like animal rearing and farming ^[7].

Traditional education in Somalia focused on community rather than individual needs. The system specifically addressed social administration needs of the time ^[8]. Learning progressed naturally and lined up with what the environment and resources could support ^[8].

Paulo Freire explained that people question their surroundings more critically and reach their full potential when they see themselves in their education ^[8]. This idea guides how traditional values blend into modern somalia education. Educational reforms want to keep learning culturally relevant while protecting Somalia's unique identity from outside influences.

Language of instruction debates

Language policy in schools in Somalia presents one of the system's most challenging aspects. The country uses multiple languages in education, and debates continue about which ones should take priority.

Both Somali and Arabic serve as teaching languages in South Central Somalia, with Arabic being more common in high schools ^[9]. However, Somaliland and Puntland mostly use Somali in their government schools - a rare case in Africa where a local language leads classroom instruction ^[9].

Different types of schools handle language differently:

• Government schools typically start with Somali and add English later ^[9]
• Many private schools teach in Arabic and follow curricula from neighboring Arab countries ^[9]
• International and diaspora-supported schools often choose English as their main language ^[10]

This mix of languages makes it hard to standardize curricula and exams ^[9]. The language question reflects deeper historical and cultural tensions. This showed clearly in the debate between Arabic and Latin script supporters for writing Somali - a conflict that ended in 1972 when the military government chose the Latin alphabet ^[3].

Educational reforms try to balance cultural preservation with practical needs. UNICEF's Go-2-School Initiative shows this balance by using Somali in primary grades before switching to English in secondary education ^[9].

The language debate goes way beyond just practical concerns. It touches on basic questions about identity and cultural independence that continue to shape the somalia education system today.

Unique Curriculum Features in Somalia Schools

The somalia schools curriculum combines academic rigor, religious instruction, and practical skill development. Somalia's government launched its first standardized national curriculum in 2019 since the civil war began in 1991. This marked their most important educational milestone. More than 40 different curricula existed throughout the country before standardization. This created an educational patchwork with varying standards and languages ^[2].

Core subjects and specializations

Nine compulsory subjects form the core curriculum in somalia schools at the primary level ^[11]. Students must learn these subjects:

• Somali language
• Islamic studies
• English (introduced from grade 2)
• Mathematics
• Science
• Social studies
• Geography
• History
• Physical education

Students start learning English as a second language from grade 2, and its importance grows as they advance ^[11]. Primary education maintains this spread of academic subjects consistently. Students cannot choose vocational streams at this level ^[11].

Schools have received up to 2 million textbooks in Somali since August 2019. They now synchronize academic terms as part of the standardization effort ^[5]. This unified approach creates consistency across education in Somalia and addresses previous gaps in learning outcomes.

Religious education components

Religious instruction serves as the life-blood of the somalia education system. Islamic studies remain mandatory in all schools, public or private ^[12]. The Federal Ministry of Education, Culture, and Higher Education believes secular education with Islamic values and Somali-language instruction helps counter extremist ideologies ^[12].

Muslim clerics shape the curriculum development process significantly. These religious leaders helped the government train teachers in Islamic ethics. They created a syllabus that produces "students who are sound, who are free from terror ideology, moderate students who have Islamic knowledge as well as other subjects" ^[5][2]. Schools in Somalia balance religious tradition with modern educational needs through this collaboration between religious authorities and government officials.

Private schools must include Islamic instruction but have more freedom with other curriculum aspects ^[12]. Non-Muslim students in public schools can request exemption from Islamic instruction. However, federal and regional authorities have not received such requests ^[12][13].

Practical skills development

Somalia schools focus on practical skills development alongside academic and religious education. The non-formal education sector provides adult literacy and vocational skills training to unemployed adults and young people ^[11]. These programs help individuals who missed formal education due to displacement or conflict.

UNICEF supports programs that fit Somalia's unique context. They provide temporary learning spaces along migration routes, mobile libraries, and interactive audio instruction ^[14]. These innovative methods reach students in nomadic communities and areas with limited infrastructure.

Quality learning remains a priority despite ongoing challenges. Only 22% of Somalia's 30,000 teachers hold certification ^[2]. The Federal Ministry of Education emphasizes that "the quality of students depends on the quality of teachers" ^[2]. Teacher training programs continue to expand to address this gap.

Young people need skills that match labor market demands. The government recognizes this through Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) ^[15]. Somalia must overcome fragmented governance and limited training opportunities. The country also needs better alignment between training programs and employer needs. These changes will create paths to meaningful employment ^[15].

Urban vs. Rural Education Access

"As we speak, millions of crisis-affected girls and boys across the African continent are being denied their human right to a quality education." — Yasmine Sherif, Executive Director of Education Cannot Wait

Educational opportunities for children in Somalia depend heavily on where they live. The gap between city and rural schools remains one of the biggest problems in the somalia education system today.

Disparities in resources and facilities

somalia schools in rural areas lack simple infrastructure and learning materials. Only 51.8% of schools in Central South Somalia have permanent structures ^[6]. Some rural areas don't even have schools, leaving children with nowhere to learn ^[1].

The quality of water and sanitation facilities sets urban and rural learning environments apart. Rural schools operate without proper WASH facilities ^[16]. Girls face extra challenges with menstrual hygiene. GPE programs have made improvements by installing 399 WASH facilities in their supported schools. These include separate latrines for girls and boys and handwashing stations ^[16].

Rural areas can't keep qualified teachers. Remote regions don't attract enough educators, which leads to poor educational outcomes ^[17]. Areas under insurgent control make this situation worse because gathering information becomes dangerous ^[17].

Enrollment rates comparison

Urban and rural enrollment numbers show a stark difference. Urban areas have a primary Net Attendance Ratio of 39%, while rural areas lag at 11% ^[18]. The wealth gap makes things worse - children from the poorest families show 4% enrollment compared to 50% from the richest families ^[18].

Nomadic communities struggle the most with education access. Only 10% of nomadic children go to primary school ^[4]. This means 92.5% of people in nomadic areas have never received formal education ^[4].

Different parts of Somalia show varying levels of success:

• Banadir and Jubaland regions perform better than average (38% and 12% respectively)
• Galmudug and Southwest Administration show concerning numbers at 21.9% and 11% ^[19]

Secondary education shows an even bigger urban-rural gap. Urban areas reach 52% GER while rural regions barely achieve 9.7% ^[18].

Community-based learning initiatives

Local solutions have become vital parts of education in somalia. Organizations create community-based learning centers where formal schools don't exist ^[1]. These centers adapt their teaching methods for nomadic populations who need flexible approaches.

Programs that help rural and nomadic learners include:

• Learning spaces along migration routes
• Mobile libraries that reach remote areas
• Interactive audio lessons for children without physical schools ^[14]

Community Education Committees (CECs) give local people ownership of their schools. UNICEF introduced these committees to connect schools with communities and help raise funds ^[20]. They work well in areas where government education services remain weak.

Education Cannot Wait (ECW) supports these community efforts through parent awareness campaigns about education's value ^[6]. They fund training for regional education officers, parents, and teachers about child protection and building resilience ^[6].

Organizations have tackled water access issues by installing water tanks in schools. This ensures stable water supplies during droughts and helps children, especially girls, continue their education even in challenging times ^[16]. These targeted solutions have created better study conditions for Somali children regardless of where they live.

International Schools in Somalia: A Growing Trend

Education in Somalia has seen a welcome addition through international schools that provide students with globally recognized qualifications. These institutions have become increasingly popular over the last several years, especially in urban areas where families look for alternatives to traditional education.

Curriculum differences

The curriculum at international schools in Somalia looks quite different from the national framework. Local Somali schools follow a standardized national curriculum with nine core subjects, while international institutions take a different approach:

• British, American, or Turkish educational models
• Curricula focused on global competencies and technologies
• English-medium instruction across all subjects
• Expanded course offerings beyond traditional subjects

Students now have more educational choices in a country that had more than 40 different curricula running at once before 2019. Turkish Maarif Foundation schools showcase this diversity by focusing on subject-related continuing education. They help students learn effective teaching skills, psychological counseling, and 21st century competencies ^[21].

Student demographics

International schools in Somalia welcome a diverse student body. Local families who want international credentials for their children study alongside expatriate communities who need consistent education for their kids. One headteacher shared an encouraging observation: "Most of our students are girls, and the majority of our teachers are women. This has created an environment where girls feel welcome and supported" ^[3].

These schools have become educational centers for displaced communities. A school in Dolow District of southern Somalia saw its enrollment jump to 990 students - twice its previous number. This growth happened thanks to support from government and international partners ^[3].

Teacher qualifications

International schools in Somalia set high standards for their teachers. They require:

1. Recognized teaching credentials from accredited programs
2. Previous experience in international education settings
3. English language proficiency for instruction
4. Subject matter expertise in specialized areas

Competition for teaching positions has intensified. Somalia received 26,500 applications for just 3,000 teaching positions in a recent hiring drive ^[3]. The government plans to hire more than 10,000 teachers to improve public education ^[3].

Teachers at international schools get more chances to develop professionally. In spite of that, Somalia's 2023-2026 Partnership Compact aims to boost government control across all educational sectors. This could lead to standardized teacher qualifications throughout the system ^[7].

Teacher Training and Development Programs

Teacher quality forms the foundation of any good education system. Training and development programs play a vital role in somalia schools. The government understands this reality and has launched new teacher training programs that benefit thousands of newly hired educators ^[22].

Qualification requirements

Primary school teachers must complete a one-year program to earn their Primary School Teacher Diploma. They need a Shahaadada Dugsiga Sare (secondary school certificate) and must finish National Service ^[23]. Secondary school teachers must meet stricter standards by completing a three-year program at a teacher training college ^[23].

Teacher credentials have varied greatly across somalia schools over time. Many teachers in northern regions completed only 7 years of primary education plus a 2-year Teacher Training Certificate. Others went through more detailed programs ^[24]. The Ministry of Education now works to standardize these requirements through well-laid-out pre-service and in-service training programs.

Professional development opportunities

Somalia education system has expanded its professional development options over the last several years. Teachers now have access to:

• Two-year diploma programs that support career growth ^[6]
• Training workshops and refresher courses hosted by teacher training institutes ^[25]
• Special programs that help teachers use technology in classrooms ^[26]

The SAFE Teachers Training Institute leads these efforts by providing quality education to both male and female student teachers ^[25]. This trailblazing institution helps develop teachers who master the knowledge, skills, and moral values they need to teach effectively ^[25].

Challenges in teacher retention

Education in somalia faces major hurdles in keeping its teaching workforce stable. Low salaries stand out as the biggest problem - teaching pays less than any other profession in Somalia, with monthly wages as low as $200 ^[8]. Teachers also leave because of poor work environments, limited management support, and safety concerns ^[8].

Female teachers face extra challenges like no maternity leave, workplace discrimination, and demanding family duties ^[27]. These educators make a real difference - female students learn better with women teachers ^[27].

High teacher turnover hurts student performance because it breaks learning continuity ^[8]. Better salaries, improved working conditions, and more professional development opportunities are needed to keep teachers in somalia schools across the country.

Assessment and Examination Systems

A look at the somalia education system shows remarkable progress in assessment methods. The return of national examinations stands out as one of the biggest steps forward in Somalia's education sector over the last several years. This achievement comes after decades when evaluation methods were scattered and inconsistent.

National testing standards

somalia schools have rebuilt their evaluation system with several achievements:

• The return of primary leaving examinations in 2020 and secondary leaving examinations in 2015
• Students take tests each June at primary and secondary levels
• Secondary exam participation grew elevenfold between 2015-2020

Students across the country take standardized tests in seven subjects at primary level and ten subjects at secondary level. These exams mix multiple-choice, short answer, and essay questions. The tests review both core knowledge and how students apply concepts in subjects like English, Math, Science, and Islamic Studies.

Grading practices

National examination results paint an encouraging picture of student achievement. About 90% of grade eight students passed their primary level end-of-cycle exams in 2020. Secondary examinations saw a 75% pass rate. Girls and boys achieved similar pass rates, which is remarkable since girls made up only 38% of Form 4 exam takers.

Schools receive quality ratings based on 57 indicators in five areas: School Management and Leadership, School Environment and Safety, Curriculum Implementation, Student Assessment, and Community Relations. Only 18% of 1,742 evaluated schools earned grades 1 and 2, which shows they had the simple teaching and learning requirements.

Transition between education levels

Student performance on exams determines their progress through education in somalia. They must reach minimum grades to move from primary to secondary or from secondary to higher education. More students now take national exams, but curriculum implementation scored lowest (40%) in quality assessments. This creates challenges for students moving between educational levels.

Conclusion

Somalia's education system shows evidence of resilience and adaptation. The 2019 national curriculum implementation represents the most important step toward educational stability. We have a long way to go, but we can build on this progress, especially when you have rural access and teacher retention challenges. Community-based initiatives and strategic collaborations bring positive changes.

Somalia's schools create a balance between traditional values and today's needs. Religious education stays at the core while expanding to cover academic subjects and practical skills. This balanced approach preserves the country's cultural identity and prepares students to seize global chances.

International schools' success stories and increased exam participation show education's power to reshape the scene in Somalia. Teacher training, reliable infrastructure, and fair access will shape how well the system works in future. Students who graduate from Somalia's schools now have better prospects than earlier generations because of standard assessments and recognized qualifications.

Somalia's educational experience mirrors its society's growth - keeping cultural roots while embracing modern changes. The future needs steadfast dedication to quality education. Every Somali child deserves the chance to learn and thrive.

FAQs

Q1. What is unique about Somalia's education system? Somalia's education system blends traditional Islamic teachings with modern academic subjects. It uses a 6-2-4-4 structure, including six years of primary, two years of lower secondary, four years of upper secondary, and four years of higher education. The system emphasizes cultural preservation while adapting to contemporary educational needs.

Q2. How does Somalia's cultural homogeneity affect its education? Somalia's cultural homogeneity, with a shared language, religion, and heritage, allows for a more unified approach to education. This enables the integration of traditional values and Islamic teachings into the curriculum while maintaining cultural relevance across the country.

Q3. What are the main challenges facing education in Somalia? Key challenges include limited access to education, with over three million children out of school, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate water and sanitation facilities, and a shortage of trained teachers and educational materials. Rural areas face particularly severe disparities in resources and enrollment rates.

Q4. How is Somalia addressing its educational challenges? Somalia is implementing various initiatives to improve education, including standardizing the national curriculum, increasing teacher training programs, and collaborating with international partners. Community-based learning initiatives and the integration of technology are also being used to expand educational access.

Q5. What role do international schools play in Somalia's education landscape? International schools in Somalia offer alternative curricula, often based on British, American, or Turkish educational models. They provide globally recognized qualifications and attract both local and expatriate students. These schools contribute to educational diversity and often have higher standards for teacher qualifications.

References

[1] - https://wamorelief.org/breaking-barriers-empowering-women-in-sports/
[2] - https://www.reuters.com/article/world/somalia-fights-to-standardize-schools-with-first-new-curriculum-since-civil-war-idUSKBN1WG3ET/
[3] - https://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2024/Dec/199295/watch_somalia_s_school_enrollment_surges_as_displaced_families_gain_access.aspx
[4] - https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/002/2024/347/article-A001-en.xml
[5] - https://www.africanews.com/2019/10/04/somalia-hopes-to-counter-al-shabaab-with-new-education-curriculum//
[6] - https://www.educationcannotwait.org/our-investments/where-we-work/somalia
[7] - https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/transforming-education-somalia
[8] - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387296149_FACTORS_EFFECTING_TEACHER_TURNOVER_IN_SECONDARY_SCHOOLS_OF_MOGADISHU_SOMALIA_ADANWELI_ABDULLAHI_AHMED_A_DISSERTATION_SUBMITTED_IN_PARTIAL_FULFILMENT_FOR_THE_DEGREE_OF_MASTER_OF_EDUCATIONAL_LEADERSHIP_
[9] - https://www.unicef.org/esa/sites/unicef.org.esa/files/2018-09/UNICEF-2016-Language-and-Learning-Somalia.pdf
[10] - https://translatorswithoutborders.org/language-data-for-somalia/
[11] - https://www.scholaro.com/db/countries/somalia/education-system
[12] - https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/somalia/
[13] - https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/SOMALIA-2021-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf
[14] - https://www.unicef.org/somalia/education
[15] - https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/143158.html
[16] - https://www.globalpartnership.org/results/country-journeys/somalia-despite-challenges-education-paves-way-promising-future
[17] - https://moe.gov.so/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/FGS-Annual-Statistics-yearbook-2022.pdf
[18] - https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2053023/Somalia+4.+Education.pdf
[19] - https://www.educationcannotwait.org/sites/default/files/2022-02/FGS%20and%20Member%20States%20MYRP_Final.pdf
[20] - https://education-profiles.org/sub-saharan-africa/somalia/~non-state-actors-in-education
[21] - https://so.maarifschool.org/page/somalia-maarif-schools
[22] - https://somalista.com/prime-minister-initiates-historic-teacher-training-somalia/
[23] - https://www.aacrao.org/edge/country/somalia
[24] - https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000000419
[25] - https://safesomalia.org/teacher-training/
[26] - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374535285_Technology_Integration_and_Teachers'_Professional_Development_in_Somalia
[27] - https://genderissuesinsomalia.wordpress.com/2014/12/16/female-teachers-in-somalia-challenges-they-face-in-the-education-sector-and-avenues-for-opportunities/